Appendix The Academy of Drawing: Florence: Founded in 1563 in a radically different way to that of the Paris Académie. It was the result of a long institutional and political tradition. It was named accademia dell'arte del disegno. Rome: The Academy of Saint-Luc was founded in 1577. Its director was called Principe, or Prince. In spite of their different backgrounds, the Academies illustrated the eminent place occupied by the Arts. Academicism: doctrine, system or practices tending to give works of art a form advocated by an Academy, in the sense of an institution or group imposing upon the artist a set of rules, a perfectly defined ideal and methods proclaimed to be the only legitimate ones, with all those deviating from these laws being severely punished. Approval: An approved member was a member admitted under certain conditions. He could them become an academician. Conditions: Must have taken part in the Grand Prix competition Must have been introduced by an official of the Académie Must have been accepted by the patron. Artist: although the concept of art is a common one since antiquity, artists were confused with artisans! In France, the term Artist was only used in its modern sense of a creator of a work of art in the 18th century. Liberal Arts (The): were Dialectic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Astronomy, Geometry, Music. The aim was to surpass material constraints in painting and, above all, in sculpture, considered as mechanical arts, and to elevate them to the higher ranks of the traditional Liberal Arts. Date: Artists did not generally go through their admission and reception ceremonies on the same day. There were some rare exceptions to the rule. Fronde (The): (1648-1652), uprising against Mazarin before Louis XIV had come of age. It was caused by the cardinal's unpopularity and his strict financial policy: The Fronde had two phases: La Fronde parlementaire (1648-1649) La Fronde des Princes (1649-1652) The revolt was ultimately a failure. Both Royalty and Mazarin emerged from this time stronger. Louis XIV (1638-1715): King of France (1643-1715), son of Louis XIII and of Anne of Austria. He was nicknamed the Sun King. On his father's death, Louis XIV was only five years old. The Regency council included Anne of Austria and Mazarin. When he came of age, Louis XIV remained under Mazarin's influence: in 1660 Mazarin encouraged the King to marry Marie-Thérèse of Austria. The young sovereign turned out to be an absolute monarch. He was driven by glory and etiquette, Versailles being a prime example of this. He surrounded himself with advisors and cleverly presided over councils. Colbert (general comptroller of finance) encouraged trade, Louvois reorganised the army and Vauban fortified the borders. Louis XIV wished to impose an image of strength and power to the outside world. The King considered himself a divinely appointed monarch. This cult of the royalty resulted in a debasing of the nobility. His long glorious reign extenuated the country. Louis XV (1710-1774): king of France (1715-1774), great grandson of Louis XIV. He reigned first under the regency of Philippe d'Orléans, nephew of Louis XIV, then, when he came of age, under the influence of the duke of Bourbon (1723-1726), who advised him to marry Marie Leszczynska (1725). Louis XV chose Cardinal de Fleury (1726-1743) to govern, after dismissing the duke of Bourbon. The excellent administration of the general comptroller Orry (1730-1745) favoured economic expansion. On de Fleury's death (1743), the king governed personally but was influenced politically by Mme de Pompadour (1745-1764). The last years of his reign marked an economic recovery, as well as an absolutist reaction. Louis XVI (1754-1793): king of France (1774-1791), then king of the French (1791-1792), son of the Dauphin Louis and Marie-Josèphe de Saxe, and husband (1770) of Marie-Antoinette of Austria. He chose talented men for ministers: Turgot, Saint-Germain and Malesherbes. For the outside world, the policies of Vergennes restored France's prestige, for example, by extending France's support to the American colonies. However, animosity against the elite grew within France. His government attempted to solve the crisis in vain. Louis XVI called Necker back (1788) and promised to summon the States General. However, the members of the Third State removed all power from Louis XVI who then lost all popularity. Reduced by the constitution of 1791 to the rank of King of the French, the constitutional sovereign tried to hinder the revolution by casting his suspensive vote but only succeeded in aggravating the prevailing discontent. Prisoner of the insurrectionary Commune (10th August), held at the Temple and accused of treason, he was judged by the convention, and condemned to die on the guillotine (21st January 1793). The Maîtrise: in a guild (an association of artisans aiming to regulate their profession and defend their interests), members had to take a certain number of tests to prove their knowledge. In the Maîtrise, they gained the status of Master. Once they had completed their masterpiece, they were received into a profession and could practice their trade independently. The term "Maîtrise" has become synonymous with guild, a professional group later named corporation in the 18th century. Often, artists and artisans belonged in the same category except that artisans could sell their works. The 18th century witnessed a new rivalry between these "masters" and artists who maintained that their art was Liberal Art, and therefore not subject to the rules and taxes of craftsmanship. Artists won. Neo-classicism: Applies to all modern and contemporary art inspired by the classical form. The term was often used in a pejorative way, for example, when describing more or less exact copies and imitations of an historical model. These were results of a lack of original inspiration as well as a sincere admiration for works from the past. Neo-classicism, in its historical sense, was a period spanning the whole of the first half of the 18th century until almost a third of the 19th century. It was in reaction to the exuberance of the baroque of the 18th century and also of the great archaeological discoveries and the ensuing fascination with Antiquity. The style is also based on aesthetically erudite works. It coincided with the return to nature advocated by Rousseau, and with the dawning of English and German pre-Romanticism. The cult of virtue and sensibility blended with the prevailing taste for Antiquity. Organisation of the Académie: the number of academicians was not limited but the infrastructure was composed of the director at the top, four rectors and twelve professors (eight initially). Reception: There were several ways in which a painter could be admitted into the Académie. Below is a list describing the least common methods of admission Without complying with formalities For services rendered On individual merit By patronage Without previously showing their works "[...] going against usual practice, the Académie has received (painters) without knowing [their] talents, which I dare to remain doubtful of [...]" Charles-Nicolas Cochin As correspondent members As painters who combined several different genres in the same work On presentation of drawings Painters twice admitted for two different genres As painters who substituted one reception piece for another There were other cases such as the following: Destitute painters whose reception piece was subsequently taken down Painters who reclaimed their reception piece following the revolution and the closure of the Académie